Me_2005.pif virus

In previous articles I've discussed a little about tips to secure computers from viruses. Read: Easy Tips to Securing Your Computer from Viruses Well, for this post is still on the same topic which is about a computer virus as well. As we know that if our computer is already infected with the virus - the virus can be removed using antivirus or if it is fixed, you can also reinstall the operating system.

But there are types of virus are arguably quite irritated me to deal with it. Unlike viruses ever infecting my computer such as malware, Trojan, or worm that can still be treated with antivirals. Virus that is arguably immune to antivirus, i do not know what it's also eating virus, to be invulnerable so, haha: D.

The virus is a type of virus that has extension. Virus with the extension. Furthermore, because it is quite overwhelmed and do not want trouble - trouble again, then I decided to reinstall my computer, so I think the computer will be clean as new again. Indeed, after the reinstall the computer is safe - safe, but after some time the same virus appearing again, the virus with. Therefore this type of virus can be fairly stubborn and troublesome, and memerluhkan handling khusus. Akhirnya I try to googling to find a solution.

After some time in and out of different sites, I finally found a suitable solution. Before getting into a solution or way of tackling the virus. It's good for us to know what is actually a virus with. The virus is driven by a file called autorun. For example in our computer there is drive C, D, and E, then the file will be assigned to all drive earlier.

So if we try to remove the virus files that have. Here master the actual virus is the autorun. Evaluating titers of antibodies gives an idea of the amount of antibodies present.

In contrast, tests eg, in-house tests that only indicate the presence of antibodies without quantification are not useful. They also produce a high number of false-positive and false-negative results []. The choice of the laboratory to be used is critical, and only those that perform quantitative titer evaluations should be used.

The laboratory should have established two levels: one is its least significant level of reactivity or lowest positive titer , and the other is its highest antibody titer value. In searching for a reliable laboratory, repeat samples from the same animal should be sent without warning to the same laboratory and to an FCoV-referenced laboratory for comparison to enable useful interpretation.

Many authors agree that low or medium titers do not have any diagnostic value [] , [] , []. It has been shown that in cats with fulminant FIP, titers decrease terminally [77].

Cats with effusions sometimes have low titers or even no antibodies. This is because large amounts of virus in the cat's body bind to antibodies and render them unavailable to bind antigen in the antibody test or because the antibodies are lost in effusion when protein is translocated in vasculitis. Extremely high titers are of a certain diagnostic value.

If the highest measurable titer is present in a cat thus, it is important to know what the highest titer in a specific laboratory is , it increases the likelihood of FIP. The diagnostic value of a high titer is also dependent on the background of the cat. The highest titer in a cat coming out of a multiple-cat household situation is not extremely predictive, because in those households, FCoV is endemic and many cats have high titers, whereas the highest titer in a cat from a single-cat environment is unusual and a stronger indicator of FIP.

Although antibody testing in sick cats that are suspected to have FIP is of limited value, there are a number of other situations in which antibody testing is a useful tool. It has been shown that the height of the antibody titer directly correlates with the amount of virus that is shed with feces; cats with high antibody titers are more likely to shed FCoV and to shed more consistently with higher amounts of the virus [51]. Thus, height of the titer is directly correlated with the virus replication rate and the amount of virus in the intestines.

Antibody measurement is important for the common situation in practice in which a cat is presented because it has been in contact with a cat with FIP or a suspected or known virus excretor. The owner wants to know the prognosis for an exposed cat or wishes to obtain another cat and needs to know whether the exposed cat is shedding FCoV. Also, cat breeders may request testing, with the goal of creating an FCoV-free cattery.

Screening a cattery for the presence of FCoV and screening a cat before introduction into an FCoV-free cattery are also important indications.

Some studies have evaluated the diagnostic value of antibody detection in fluids other than serum, such as in effusions []. The presence of antibodies in effusion is correlated with the presence of antibodies in blood []. In a study by Kennedy et al [] , antibody titers in effusions were not helpful, because all cats in their study had medium antibody titers irrespective of whether they had FIP or not.

The measurement of antibodies in effusions is at least more useful than the measurement of antibodies in blood. Foley et al [] determined the diagnostic value of antibody detection in CSF and found a good correlation to the presence of FIP when compared with histopathologic findings, whereas in a study by Boettcher et al [] , there was no significant difference in antibody titers in CSF from cats with neurologic signs caused by FIP compared with cats with other neurologic diseases confirmed by histopathologic findings.

Compared with serology, RT-PCR provides the obvious advantage of directly detecting the ongoing infection rather than documenting a previous immune system encounter with a coronavirus.

Although FIP-causing viruses are genetic mutants of harmless enteric FCoV, numerous sites exist in the 3C and 7B genes that can be mutated or deleted and confer on the virus the capability to infect and replicate within macrophages.

Sometimes, the change can be a single RNA base. There are several plausible explanations for false-negative PCR results. There may be sufficient strain and nucleotide sequence variation such that the target sequence chosen for the assay may not detect all strains of FIPV [19]. There are also a number of explanations for false-positive results.

Although the role of these viruses in the field is unknown, cats can be experimentally infected with CCV and TGEV [35] , [] , [] ; these infections could result in a positive PCR result. Second, recent studies support the hypothesis that viremia occurs not only in cats with FIP but in healthy carriers. Therefore, the results of PCR tests must be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and cannot be used as the sole criterion for diagnosing FIP.

RT-PCR in effusion has been discussed as an interesting diagnostic tool. Data on the usefulness of this approach are limited, however. So far, only one study including information about RT-PCR on ascites fluid of a limited number of cats has been reported. These numbers are, however, not sufficient to judge that approach sufficiently.

Accurate studies are needed, however. PCR should be performed as quickly as possible after collection, even if samples are frozen; delays in testing may result in false-negative results. The strength of the PCR signal in feces correlates with the amount of virus present in the intestines [51]. Because FIP is an immune-mediated disease and antibody antigen complexes play an important role, it has been suggested to look for circulating complexes in serum and effusions [] , [].

Other methods to detect the virus include searching for the presence of FCoV antigen Fig. In a study by Parodi et al [] , an immunofluorescence assay detecting intracellular FCoV antigen in cells within effusion was used; however, the number of cats enrolled in that study was limited.

There were no false-positive results. Cases that stained negative although the cats did have FIP can be explained by the fact that the number of macrophages on the effusion smear is sometimes insufficient. Another explanation is a potential masking of the antigen by competitive binding of FCoV antibodies in effusion that displace binding of fluorescence antibodies []. Immunohistochemistry can also be used to detect the expression of FCoV antigen in tissue [].

Tammer et al [] used immunohistochemistry to detect intracellular FCoV antigen in paraffin-embedded tissues of euthanized cats and found FCoV antigen only in macrophages of cats that had FIP and not in control cats.

Obviously, only FIP-causing virus is able to replicate in sufficiently large amounts in macrophages, which results in positive staining. Therefore, in addition to histopathology if pathognomonic lesions are present , detection of intracellular FCoV antigen by immunofluorescence or immunohistochemistry is the only way to diagnose FIP definitively.

This tool should be used whenever possible. Diagnosis of FIP can be established in many cases with just histopathologic testing of biopsy or necropsy samples. Hematoxylin and eosin—stained samples typically contain localized perivascular mixed inflammation with macrophages, neutrophils, lymphocytes, and plasma cells.

Pyogranulomas may be large and consolidated, sometimes with focal tissue necrosis, or numerous and small. Lymphoid tissues in cats with FIP often show lymphoid depletion caused by apoptosis [26] , [] , []. If histologic testing is not diagnostic, staining of antigen in macrophages [] or detection of nucleic acids in tissue [] can be used to confirm FIP Fig.

Virtually every cat with confirmed FIP dies. Fast and reliable diagnosis of FIP and differentiating it from harmless enteric FCoV infection are crucial for prognostic reasons. There is no indication that any treatment of a healthy antibody-positive cat would prevent development of FIP [26]. Treatment with corticosteroids can conceivably prevent clinical signs from occurring once the mutation has occurred for a certain period of time, but immune suppression might have the opposite effect and precipitate clinical FIP because it can increase the risk of mutation if the mutation has not occurred yet.

Thus, immune suppression is contraindicated as long as the cat is only infected with harmless FCoV. Because stress is an important factor in the development of FIP [95] , avoidance of unnecessary stress, such as rehoming, elective surgery, or placement in a boarding cattery, may be beneficial. Most cases of diarrhea caused by nonmutated FCoV are self-limiting. Cats with chronic diarrhea that have antibodies against FCoV, in which other possible causes have been eliminated or in which FCoV has been detected in the feces by electron microscopy, can only be treated supportively with fluid and electrolyte replacement and dietary intervention [20].

Treatment with lactulose or living natural yogurt may be beneficial because it regulates the intestinal bacterial flora and increases passage time. No specific antiviral treatment has yet been demonstrated to cure this condition. These cases can be a challenge because they are sometimes difficult to distinguish from cats with FIP, which can manifest solely as granulomatous changes in the intestines leading to diarrhea. FIP diarrhea can only be treated with immune suppression if it is identified, which, conversely, is contraindicated in harmless FCoV infection.

In both cases, cats usually have antibodies and sometimes high titers but can only be differentiated by exploratory surgery, which should be avoided in cats with harmless intestinal FCoV infection. Some cats with milder clinical signs may survive for several months and enjoy some quality of life with treatment, however.

Once clinical signs become debilitating and weight and appetite decline, the owner must be prepared for the reality that the cat is dying. Because FIP is an immune-mediated disease, treatment is aimed at controlling the immune response to FCoV, and the most successful treatments consist of relatively high doses of immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory drugs.

Cats with FIP should also be treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics and supportive therapy eg, subcutaneous fluids for as long as they are comfortable. A thromboxane synthetase inhibitor ozagrel hydrochloride , which inhibits platelet aggregation, has been used in a few cats and has led to some improvement of clinical signs [].

Some veterinarians prescribe immune modulators eg, Propionibacterium acnes , acemannan to treat cats with FIP, with no documented controlled evidence of efficacy. It has been suggested that these agents may benefit infected animals by restoring compromised immune function, thereby allowing the patient to control viral burden and recover from the disease.

Nonspecific stimulation of the immune system is contraindicated however in cats with FIP, because clinical signs develop and progress as a result of an immune-mediated response to the mutated FCoV. The search for an effective antiviral treatment for cats with FIP, unfortunately, has not been successful, although several studies have been performed.

Ribavirin is a nucleoside analogue, but in contrast to the most common antiviral compounds, which act primarily to inhibit polymerases, ribavirin allows DNA and RNA synthesis to occur but prevents the formation of viral proteins, most likely by interfering with capping of viral mRNA. In vivo, therapeutic concentrations are difficult to achieve because of toxicity, and cats are extremely sensitive to the side effects.

In one study, ribavirin was administered All kittens, including ribavirin-treated and untreated kittens, succumbed to FIP. Clinical signs of disease were even more severe in the ribavirin-treated kittens, and their mean survival times were shortened [].

This develops as a result of sequestration of the drug in red blood cells. In addition, a dose-related toxic effect on bone marrow occurs, primarily on megakaryocytes resulting in thrombocytopenia and hemorrhage , and erythroid precursors. Later on or at higher dosages, neutrophil numbers are suppressed. Liver toxicity has also been reported [] , []. They were, however, not able to reach a therapeutic concentration with this regimen. It is not virucidal but merely inhibits viral nucleic acid and protein synthesis.

It binds to specific cell receptors that activate enzymes, inhibiting synthesis, assembly, and release of viruses. When given parenterally in high doses, application leads to detectable serum levels. Thus, direct antiviral effects are unlikely after oral administration; instead, it only seems to have immunomodulatory activity. IFNs are species specific, and the human IFN clearly differs from the feline one not only regarding its antigenicity thus causing antibody development in animals but with respect to its antiviral efficacy in feline cells.

Although most cats died, 4 cats survived over a period of 2 years; all had initially presented with effusions. Even though there was no control group in this study and FIP was not even confirmed in the 4 surviving cats, these results are somewhat interesting because cats with other effusion-associated diseases would not be expected to survive for 2 years without proper treatment , and further studies would certainly be interesting.

Unfortunately, preventing FIP is extremely difficult. Testing and removing strategies are ineffective. Management of FIP should be directed at minimizing the population impact and accurately diagnosing and supporting individual affected cats. Thus, veterinarians need to be knowledgeable regarding successful and unsuccessful strategies so as to provide useful counsel to their clients. Different situations have to be considered depending on the environment. If a cat with FIP is euthanized and there are no remaining cats, the owner should wait approximately 3 months before obtaining another cat, because FCoV can stay infectious for at least 7 weeks in the environment.

If there are other cats in the household, they are most likely infected with and shedding FCoV. In natural circumstances, cats go outside to defecate and bury their feces, in which case the virus remains infectious hours to days slightly longer in freezing conditions. Domesticated cats have been introduced to litter boxes, however, in which FCoV may survive for several days, and possibly up to 7 weeks in dried-up feces. Thus, FCoV-shedding cats most likely have a better chance to eliminate the virus if allowed to go outside optimum situation is in a fenced yard.

It is a common practice for clients to present a cat to the veterinarian that has been in contact with a cat with FIP or a suspected or known virus excretor. The owner may want to know the prognosis for the exposed cat or may want to obtain another cat and needs to know whether the exposed cat is shedding FCoV.

There are a few cats, however, that may be resistant to FCoV infection. It has been shown that a low number of cats in FCoV endemic multiple-cat households continuously remain antibody-negative []. The mechanism of action for this resistance is still unknown. The owner should be advised that the cat in contact is likely to have antibodies and reassured that this is not necessarily associated with a poor prognosis.

Most cats infected with FCoV do not develop FIP, and many cats in single- or 2-cat households eventually clear the infection and become antibody-negative in a few months to years. Cats can be retested using the same laboratory every 6 to 12 months until the results of the antibody test are negative. Cats exposed only once often have a quicker reduction in antibodies.

To exclude any risk at all, the owner should be advised to wait until antibody titers of all cats are negative before obtaining a new cat.

Some cats, however, remain antibody-positive for years. A rise in antibody titer or maintenance at a high level does not necessarily indicate a poor prognosis for the cat.

In a study following cats with high titers, the titers of 50 of these cats remained at a high level on at least three occasions, yet only 4 cats died of FIP [26]. In contrast, in a situation of endemic infection, a constantly low titer is highly indicative that a cat is not going to develop FIP. Households of less than 5 cats can spontaneously and naturally become FCoV-free, but in households of more than 10 cats, this is almost impossible, because the virus passes from one individual cat to another, maintaining the infection.

This holds true for virtually all multiple-cat households, such as breeding catteries, shelters, foster homes, and other homes with more than 5 cats. When a cat in a household develops FIP, all other cats in contact with that cat have already been exposed to the same FCoV. Various tactics have been used to eliminate FCoV from a household. Reducing the number of cats especially kittens less than 12 months old and keeping possibly FCoV-contaminated surfaces clean can minimize population loads of FCoV.

Antibody testing and segregating cats are aimed at stopping exposure. Approximately one third of antibody-positive cats excrete virus [10] , [11] , [] , [] , [] ; thus, every antibody-positive cat has to be considered infectious. After 3 to 6 months, antibody titers can be retested to determine whether cats have become negative.

It is important to detect chronic FCoV carriers so that they can be removed. Repeated PCR testing of feces should be performed at weekly intervals for 2 months or more to document carriers. If the cats remain persistently PCR-positive for more than 6 weeks, they should be eliminated from the cattery and placed in single-cat environments [].

More than any other factor, management of kittens determines whether or not they become infected with FCoV. Kittens of FCoV-shedding queens should be protected from infection by maternally derived antibody until they are 5 to 6 weeks old. An early weaning protocol for the prevention of FCoV infection in kittens has been proposed by Addie and Jarrett [26] , which consists of isolation of queens 2 to 3 weeks before parturition, strict quarantine of queens and kittens, and early weaning at 4 to 6 weeks of age.

This procedure is based on the findings that some queens do not shed the virus and some queens stop shedding after several weeks if not re-exposed. Even if queens do shed, young kittens have maternal resistance to the virus [7].

Early removal of kittens from the queen and prevention of infection from other cats may succeed in preventing infection in these kittens. Although straightforward in concept, isolation of queens and early weaning is not as simple as it may seem.

The procedure requires quarantine rooms and procedures that absolutely ensure a new virus does not enter. It is an advantage when the isolated queens are not shedding FCoV, when they are shedding low levels, or when they can clear the infection early after being isolated. The single most important factor is the number of animals. Also, human abodes do not easily allow adequate quarantine space for large numbers of queens and kittens, and the time and money required to maintain quarantine increase in proportion to the number of queens and litters under quarantine.

In a study in large catteries in Switzerland in which the same protocol was followed, early weaning failed and viral infection of kittens as young as 2 weeks old was demonstrated []. It is clear that low FCoV exposure can delay infection, whereas high exposure can overcome maternally derived immunity at an early age.

There are two essential downsides of isolation and early weaning. It is not easy to do, and it fails if appropriate conditions are not maintained. Additionally, some breeders believe that early weaning exacts a social price on the kittens. In recognition of both concerns, it is recommended that early weaning not be undertaken without careful consideration.

FCoV-free households do not require routine isolation and early weaning. When kittens are isolated with their queen, special care must be taken during the period from 2 to 7 weeks of age to socialize the kittens. The success of early weaning should also be monitored, and it should not be continued if it is not successful. Kittens that have been successfully reared free of FCoV should be antibody-negative at 12 weeks of age. Even if kittens can be raised free of FCoV, they may become infected sooner or later.

Therefore, the objective of isolation and early weaning should not be to prevent infection but to delay it []. For early weaning to be effective, it is best for kittens to be taken to a new home with no other cats at 5 weeks of age.

Even then, however, early weaning is not always successful. It has been suggested to maximize heritable resistance to FIP in breeding catteries. Genetic predisposition is not completely understood, however. It is known that susceptible cats are approximately twice as likely to develop FIP as other cats []. If a cat has two or more litters in which kittens develop FIP, that cat should not be bred again.

Particular attention should be paid to pedigrees of males, in which FIP is overrepresented. Because line breeding often uses valuable tomcats extensively, eliminating such animals may have a small but important effect on improving overall resistance []. Screening of a cattery for the presence of FCoV is important. If there are many cats housed in a group, a random sampling of 3 to 4 cats should indicate whether FCoV is endemic. If cats are housed individually, it may be necessary to test them all.

Cats in households with fewer than 10 cats and no new acquisitions and cats that are isolated from each other in groups of 3 or less often eventually lose their FCoV infection []. Once they have been established, antibody-negative catteries can be maintained free of FCoV by monitoring new cats before they are introduced.

Thus, cats should be screened before introduction, and antibody-positive cats should never be taken into the household. Cat breeders often also request that their cats be screened for FCoV antibodies before mating.

If the cat is healthy and antibody-negative, it can be safely mated with another antibody-negative cat. If the cat is antibody-positive, it should not be mated with a cat from an FCoV-free environment []. Prevention of FIP in a shelter situation is virtually impossible unless cats are strictly kept in separate cages and handled only by means of sterile handling devices comparable to isolation units.

Isolation is often not effective because of the ease with which FCoV is transported on clothes, shoes, dust, and cats. Comparison of shelters with different types of handling revealed a significant correlation between an increase in the number of handling events outside the cages and an increase in the percentage of antibody-positive cats.

In a study in which feral cats were tested at the time they were brought into local shelters in which multiple cats were kept together and at 1-to 2-week intervals thereafter, only a low number of cats had antibodies at the time point of entering, but the percentage increased rapidly until virtually all cats in the shelters were infected with FCoV [40].

Shelter managers should use education and communication to minimize adverse effects of FIP in cat populations. Shelters need to optimize facilities and husbandry so that the facilities can be cleaned easily and virus spread is minimized.

It is essential to decrease viral load and stress levels []. There have been many attempts to develop effective vaccines, but, unfortunately, most have failed, mainly because of ADE [75] , [78] , [] , []. Nevertheless, a vaccine was licensed Primucell, Pfizer Animal Health incorporating a temperature-sensitive mutant of the FCoV strain DF2-FIPV, which can replicate in the cool lining of the upper respiratory tract but not at higher internal body temperatures [] , [] , [] , [].

This vaccine, administered intranasally, produces local immunity IgA antibodies at the site where FCoV first enters the body the oropharynx and also induces cell-mediated immunity.

The vaccine has been available in the United States since and has been introduced in many European countries. The concerns of such a vaccine are safety and efficacy. Although some experimental vaccine trials with vaccines that never appeared on the market have recorded ADE on challenge [] , [] , field studies have demonstrated that this intranasal vaccine is safe.

In two extensive placebo-controlled double-blind field trials there was no development of FIP or ADE [] , [] , []. There were a few immediate side effects after application, such as sneezing, vomiting, or diarrhea, which were not statistically different in the vaccinated group and the placebo group []. The efficacy of this vaccine is questioned constantly, however. In a survey of cats belonging to 15 cat breeders in which virtually all the cats had antibodies, no difference was found in the development of FIP between the vaccinated group and the placebo group [].

In one of the placebo-controlled double-blind trials that was performed in Switzerland in a group of cats that did not have contact with FCoV before vaccination, a small but statistically significant reduction in the number of cats that developed FIP was noted [] , [].

Because the vaccine is ineffective when cats have already had contact with FCoV, antibody testing may be beneficial before vaccination. One disadvantage is that most cats develop antibodies after vaccination, thus making the establishment and control of an FCoV-free household difficult. In conclusion, study results do not clearly identify whether vaccination has no effect versus a small effect. Although only marginally if at all efficacious, the vaccine is at least safe and does not induce ADE.

There is, however, no indication that people can be infected with FCoV. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Published online Mar 1. Katrin Hartmann , Dr med vet, Dr med vet habil. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Katrin Hartmann: ed.

All rights reserved. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVIDrelated research that is available on the COVID resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source.

This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Etiology The disease FIP was first described in as a syndrome in cats characterized by immune-mediated vasculitis and pyogranulomatous inflammatory reactions [24]. Epidemiology FCoV and FIP are major problems in multiple-cat households and, to a much lesser extent, in free-roaming cats. Prevalence FCoV is distributed worldwide in household and wild cats [27] , [28].

Transmission Infection usually takes place oronasally. Virus shedding FCoV is shed mainly in the feces. Pathogenesis of enteric feline coronavirus infection After a cat becomes infected with FCoV by ingestion or, rarely, by inhalation , the main site of viral replication is the intestinal epithelium.

Pathogenesis of feline infectious peritonitis FIP itself is not an infectious but a sporadic disease caused by a virus variant that has developed within a specific cat.

Occurrence of the mutation FIP develops when there is a spontaneous mutation in a certain region of the FCoV genome the genes 3C and 7B are being discussed as most important [19]. Development of the disease FIP is an immune complex disease involving virus or viral antigen, antiviral antibodies, and complement. Antibody-dependent enhancement In many infectious diseases, preexisting antibodies protect against subsequent challenge.

Feline coronavirus infection After initial FCoV infection, there may be a short episode of upper respiratory tract signs, although these signs are usually not severe enough to warrant veterinary attention [26].

Feline infectious peritonitis Clinical signs of FIP can be variable, because many organs, including the liver, kidneys, pancreas, and eyes, as well as the CNS can be involved. Effusions Many cats with FIP develop effusions.

Open in a separate window. Changes in abdominal and thoracic organs In cats without effusion, signs are often vague and include fever, weight loss, lethargy, and decreased appetite. Ocular changes Cats with FIP frequently have ocular lesions. Neurologic signs FIP is a common reason for neurologic disorders in cats. Laboratory changes There are a number of laboratory changes that are common in cats with FIP; they are not pathognomonic, however, and FIP cannot be diagnosed based on these findings.

Complete blood cell counts and coagulation parameters Blood cell counts are often changed in cats with FIP [] , [] ; however, changes are not pathognomonic. Serum chemistry The most consistent laboratory finding in cats with FIP is an increase in total serum protein concentration [41] , [] , [].

Tests on effusion fluid If there is effusion, the most important diagnostic step is to sample the fluid, because tests of effusion have a much higher diagnostic value than tests performed using blood. Measurement of antibodies Antibody titers measured in serum are an extensively used diagnostic tool [6] , []. Antibodies in blood Although frequently criticized, antibody testing has a certain role in the diagnosis and, more importantly, in the management of FCoV infection when it is performed by appropriate methodologies and results are properly interpreted.

Antibodies in effusion Some studies have evaluated the diagnostic value of antibody detection in fluids other than serum, such as in effusions []. Antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid Foley et al [] determined the diagnostic value of antibody detection in CSF and found a good correlation to the presence of FIP when compared with histopathologic findings, whereas in a study by Boettcher et al [] , there was no significant difference in antibody titers in CSF from cats with neurologic signs caused by FIP compared with cats with other neurologic diseases confirmed by histopathologic findings.

Polymerase chain reaction Compared with serology, RT-PCR provides the obvious advantage of directly detecting the ongoing infection rather than documenting a previous immune system encounter with a coronavirus.

Polymerase chain reaction in effusion RT-PCR in effusion has been discussed as an interesting diagnostic tool. Polymerase chain reaction in cerebrospinal fluid CSF has not been recommended for RT-PCR because it may contain low numbers of virus also in cats that do not have FIP if the blood-brain barrier is compromised.

Antibody antigen complex detection Because FIP is an immune-mediated disease and antibody antigen complexes play an important role, it has been suggested to look for circulating complexes in serum and effusions [] , []. Antigen detection Other methods to detect the virus include searching for the presence of FCoV antigen Fig.

Immunofluorescence staining of feline coronavirus antigen in effusion In a study by Parodi et al [] , an immunofluorescence assay detecting intracellular FCoV antigen in cells within effusion was used; however, the number of cats enrolled in that study was limited. Antigen in tissue Immunohistochemistry can also be used to detect the expression of FCoV antigen in tissue []. Histology Diagnosis of FIP can be established in many cases with just histopathologic testing of biopsy or necropsy samples.

Therapy Virtually every cat with confirmed FIP dies. Treatment of healthy feline coronavirus antibody—positive cats There is no indication that any treatment of a healthy antibody-positive cat would prevent development of FIP [26].

Treatment of cats with feline coronavirus—induced enteritis Most cases of diarrhea caused by nonmutated FCoV are self-limiting. Symptomatic treatment of cats with feline infectious peritonitis Treatment for FIP is almost invariably doomed to failure, because cats with clinical FIP eventually die.

Antiviral chemotherapy in cats with feline infectious peritonitis The search for an effective antiviral treatment for cats with FIP, unfortunately, has not been successful, although several studies have been performed. Prevention Unfortunately, preventing FIP is extremely difficult. Management Different situations have to be considered depending on the environment.

Management of a cat after contact If a cat with FIP is euthanized and there are no remaining cats, the owner should wait approximately 3 months before obtaining another cat, because FCoV can stay infectious for at least 7 weeks in the environment. Management of multiple-cat households with endemic feline coronavirus Households of less than 5 cats can spontaneously and naturally become FCoV-free, but in households of more than 10 cats, this is almost impossible, because the virus passes from one individual cat to another, maintaining the infection.

Early weaning and isolation More than any other factor, management of kittens determines whether or not they become infected with FCoV.

Recommendations for breeding catteries It has been suggested to maximize heritable resistance to FIP in breeding catteries. Recommendations for shelters Prevention of FIP in a shelter situation is virtually impossible unless cats are strictly kept in separate cages and handled only by means of sterile handling devices comparable to isolation units.

Vaccination There have been many attempts to develop effective vaccines, but, unfortunately, most have failed, mainly because of ADE [75] , [78] , [] , []. References 1. Rohrbach B. Epidemiology of feline infectious peritonitis among cats examined at veterinary medical teaching hospitals. J Am Vet Med Assoc. Cave T. Kitten mortality in the United Kingdom: a retrospective analysis of histopathological examinations to Vet Rec.

Pedersen N. Coronavirus diseases coronavirus enteritis, feline infectious peritonitis In: Holzworth J. WB Saunders; Philadelphia: Diseases of the cat. Medicine and surgery. Morphologic and physical characteristics of feline infectious peritonitis virus and its growth in autochthonous peritoneal cell cultures. Am J Vet Res. Serologic studies of naturally occurring feline infectious peritonitis.

Loeffler D. The incidence of naturally occurring antibodies against feline infectious peritonitis in selected cat populations. Feline Pract. Addie D. A study of naturally occurring feline coronavirus infections in kittens. Vet Rec. Sparkes A. Feline coronavirus antibodies in UK cats. Feline infectious peritonitis: something old, something new. Feline coronavirus antibodies in cats.

Risk of feline infectious peritonitis in cats naturally infected with feline coronavirus. An enteric coronavirus infection of cats and its relationship to feline infectious peritonitis. Pathogenetic differences between various feline coronavirus isolates. Adv Exp Med Biol.

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